Chapter 55 Equine Protozoal Myeloencephalitis

  1. Rooney JR, Prickett ME, Delaney FM, et al: Focal myelitis-encephalitis in horses. Cornell Vet 50:494–501, 1970. PUBMED Abstract
  2. Beech J, Dodd DC: Toxoplasma-like encephalomyelitis in the horse. Vet Pathol 11:87–96, 1974. PUBMED Abstract
  3. Beech J: Equine protozoan encephalomyelitis. Vet Med Small Anim Clin 69:1562–1566, 1974. PUBMED Abstract
  4. Dubey JP, Davis GW, Koestner A, et al: Equine encephalomyelitis due to a protozoal parasite resembling Toxoplasma gondii. J Am Vet Med Assoc 165:249–255, 1974. PUBMED Abstract
  5. Cusick PK, Seils DM, Hamilton DP, et al: Toxoplasmosis in two horses. J Am Vet Med Assoc 164:77–80, 1974. PUBMED Abstract
  6. Riemann HP, Smith AT, Stormont C, et al: Equine toxoplasmosis: a survey for antibodies to Toxoplasma gondii in horses. Am J Vet Res 36:1797–1800, 1975. PUBMED Abstract
  7. Al-Khalidi NW, Weisbrode SE, Dubey JP: Pathogenicity of Toxoplasma gondii oocysts to ponies. Am J Vet Res 41:1549–1551, 1980. PUBMED Abstract
  8. Dubey JP: Persistence of encysted Toxoplasma gondii in tissues of equids fed oocysts. Am J Vet Res 46:1753–1754, 1985. PUBMED Abstract
  9. Davis SW, Daft BN, Dubey JP: Sarcocystis neurona cultured in vitro from a horse with equine protozoal myelitis. Equine Vet J 23:315–317, 1991. PUBMED Abstract
  10. Dubey JP, Davis SW, Speer CA, et al: Sarcocystis neurona n. sp. (Protozoa: Apicomplexa), the etiologic agent of equine protozoal myeloencephalitis. J Parasitol 77:212–218, 1991. PUBMED Abstract
  11. Bowman DD, Cummings JF, Davis SW, et al: Characterization of Sarcocystis neurona from a thoroughbred with equine protozoal myeloencephalitis. Cornell Vet 82:41–52, 1992. PUBMED Abstract
  12. Fenger CK, Granstrom DE, Langemeier JL, et al: Phylogenetic relationship of Sarcocystis neurona to other members of the family Sarcocystidae based on small subunit ribosomal RNA gene sequence. J Parasitol 80:966–975, 1994. PUBMED Abstract
  13. Dame JB, MacKay RJ, Yowell CA, et al: Sarcocystis falcatula from passerine and psittacine birds: synonymy with Sarcocystis neurona, agent of equine protozoal myeloencephalitis. J Parasitol 81:930–935, 1995. PUBMED Abstract
  14. Tanhauser SM, Yowell CA, Cutler TJ, et al: Multiple DNA markers differentiate Sarcocystis neurona and Sarcocystis falcatula. J Parasitol 85:221–228, 1999. PUBMED Abstract
  15. Marsh AE, Barr BC, Tell L, et al: In vitro cultivation and experimental inoculation of Sarcocystis falcatula and Sarcocystis neurona merozoites into budgerigars (Melopsittacus undulatus). J Parasitol 83:1189–1192, 1997. PUBMED Abstract
  16. Lindsay DS, Dubey JP, Horton KM, et al: Development of Sarcocystis falcatula in cell cultures demonstrates that it is different from Sarcocystis neurona. Parasitology 118(pt 3):227–233, 1999. PUBMED Abstract
  17. Cutler TJ, MacKay RJ, Ginn PE, et al: Are Sarcocystis neurona and Sarcocystis falcatula synonymous? A horse infection challenge. J Parasitol 85:301–305, 1999. PUBMED Abstract
  18. Dubey JP, Lindsay DS: Isolation in immunodeficient mice of Sarcocystis neurona from opossum (Didelphis virginiana) faeces, and its differentiation from Sarcocystis falcatula. Int J Parasitol 28:1823–1828, 1998. PUBMED Abstract
  19. Marsh AE, Barr BC, Tell L, et al: Comparison of the internal transcribed spacer, ITS-1, from Sarcocystis falcatula isolates and Sarcocystis neurona. J Parasitol 85:750–757, 1999. PUBMED Abstract
  20. Marsh AE, Barr BC, Madigan J, et al: Neosporosis as a cause of equine protozoal myeloencephalitis. J Am Vet Med Assoc 209:1907–1913, 1996. PUBMED Abstract
  21. Daft BM, Barr BC, Collins N, et al: Neospora encephalomyelitis and polyradiculoneuritis in an aged mare with Cushing's disease. Equine Vet J 29:240–243, 1997. PUBMED Abstract
  22. Hamir AN, Tornquist SJ, Gerros TC, et al: Neospora caninum–associated equine protozoal myeloencephalitis. Vet Parasitol 79:269–274, 1998. PUBMED Abstract
  23. Marsh AE, Barr BC, Packham AE, et al: Description of a new Neospora species (Protozoa: Apicomplexa: Sarcocystidae). J Parasitol 84:983–991, 1998. PUBMED Abstract
  24. Marsh AE, Howe DK, Wang G, et al: Differentiation of Neospora hughesi from Neospora caninum based on their immunodominant surface antigen, SAG1 and SRS2. Int J Parasitol 29:1575–1582, 1999. PUBMED Abstract
  25. Dubey JP, Liddell S, Mattson D, et al: Characterization of the Oregon isolate of Neospora hughesi from a horse. J Parasitol 87:345–353, 2001. PUBMED Abstract
  26. Fenger CK, Granstrom DE, Langemeier JL, et al: Identification of opossums (Didelphis virginiana) as the putative definitive host of Sarcocystis neurona. J Parasitol 81:916–919, 1995. PUBMED Abstract
  27. Cheadle MA, Yowell CA, Sellon DC, et al: The striped skunk (Mephitis mephitis) is an intermediate host for Sarcocystis neurona. Int J Parasitol 31:843–849, 2001. PUBMED Abstract
  28. Dubey JP, Saville WJ, Stanek JF, et al: Sarcocystis neurona infections in raccoons (Procyon lotor): evidence for natural infection with sarcocysts, transmission of infection to opossums (Didelphis virginiana), and experimental induction of neurologic disease in raccoons. Vet Parasitol 100:117–129, 2001. PUBMED Abstract
  29. Cheadle MA, Tanhauser SM, Dame JB, et al: The nine-banded armadillo (Dasypus novemcinctus) is an intermediate host for Sarcocystis neurona. Int J Parasitol 31:330–335, 2001. PUBMED Abstract
  30. Tanhauser SM, Cheadle MA, Massey ET, et al: The nine-banded armadillo (Dasypus novemcinctus) is naturally infected with Sarcocystis neurona. Int J Parasitol 31:325–329, 2001. PUBMED Abstract
  31. Dubey JP, Saville WJ, Lindsay DS, et al: Completion of the life cycle of Sarcocystis neurona. J Parasitol 86:1276–1280, 2000. PUBMED Abstract
  32. Dubey JR, Rosypal AC, Rosenthal BM, et al: Sarcocystis neurona infections in sea otter (Enhydra lutris): evidence for natural infections with sarcocysts and transmission of infection to opossums (Didelphis virginiana). J Parasitol 87:1387–1393, 2001. PUBMED Abstract
  33. Dubey JP: Recent developments in the biology of Sarcocystis neurona and equine protozoal myeloencephalitis. J Vet Parasitol 15:91–102, 2001.
  34. Dubey JP, Lindsay DS, Saville WJ, et al: A review of Sarcocystis neurona and equine protozoal myeloencephalitis (EPM). Vet Parasitol 95:89–131, 2001. PUBMED Abstract
  35. Lindsay DS, Mitchell SM, Vianna MC, et al: Sarcocystis neurona (Protozoa: Apicomplexa): description of oocysts, sporocysts, sporozoites, excystation, and early development. J Parasitol 90:461–465, 2004. PUBMED Abstract
  36. Lindsay, DS, Mitchell SM, Yang J, et al: Penetration of equine leukocytes by merozoites of Sarcocystis neurona. Vet Parasitol 138:371–376, 2006. PUBMED Abstract
  37. Speer CA, Dubey JP: Ultrastructure of schizonts and merozoites of Sarcocystis neurona. Vet Parasitol 95:263–271, 2001. PUBMED Abstract
  38. Stanek JF, Dubey JP, Oglesbee MJ, et al: Life cycle of Sarcocystis neurona in its natural intermediate host, the raccoon, Procyon lotor. J Parasitol 88:1151–1158, 2002. PUBMED Abstract
  39. Dubey JP, Chapman JL, Rosenthal BM, et al: Clinical Sarcocystis neurona, Toxoplasma gondii and Neospora caninum infections in dogs. Vet Parasitol 137:36–49, 2006. PUBMED Abstract
  40. Dubey JP, Lindsay DS, Saville WJ: Serologic responses of cats against experimental Sarcocystis neurona infections. Vet Parasitol 107:265–269, 2002. PUBMED Abstract
  41. Vashisht K, Lichtensteiger CA, Miller LA, et al: Naturally occurring Sarcocystis neurona-like infection in a dog with myositis. Vet Parasitol 133:19–25, 2005. PUBMED Abstract
  42. Cheadle MA, Lindsay DS, Rowe S, et al: Prevalence of antibodies to Neospora sp. in horses from Alabama and characterisation of an isolate recovered from a naturally infected horse [corrected]. Int J Parasitol 29:1537–1543, 1999. PUBMED Abstract
  43. Dubey JP: Prevalence of Sarcocystis species sporocysts in wild-caught opossums (Didelphis virginiana). J Parasitol 86:705–710, 2000. PUBMED Abstract
  44. Cheadle MA, Dame JB, Greiner EC: Sporocyst size of isolates of Sarcocystis shed by the Virginia opossum (Didelphis virginiana). Vet Parasitol 95:305–311, 2001. PUBMED Abstract
  45. Rickard LG, Black SS, Rashmir-Raven A, et al: Risk factors associated with the presence of Sarcocystis neurona sporocysts in opossums (Didelphis virginiana). Vet Parasitol 102:179–184, 2001. PUBMED Abstract
  46. Elsheikha HM, Murphy AJ, Mansfield LS: Prevalence of and risk factors associated with the presence of Sarcocystis neurona sporocysts in opossum (Didelphis virginiana) from Michigan: a retrospective study. Vet Parasitol 125:277–286, 2004. PUBMED Abstract
  47. Butcher M, Lakritz J, Halaney A, et al: Experimental inoculation of domestic cats (Felis domesticus) with Sarcocystis neurona or S. neurona–like merozoites. Vet Parasitol 107:1–14, 2002. PUBMED Abstract
  48. Mullaney T, Murphy AJ, Kiupel M, et al: Evidence to support horses as natural intermediate hosts for Sarcocystis neurona. Vet Parasitol 133:27–36, 2005. PUBMED Abstract
  49. Gillis KD, MacKay RJ, Yowell CA, et al: Naturally occurring Sarcocystis infection in domestic cats (Felis catus). Int J Parasitol 33:877–883, 2003. PUBMED Abstract
  50. Rossano MG, Murphy AJ, Vrable RA, et al: Cross-sectional study of serum antibodies against Sarcocystis neurona in cats tested for antibodies against Toxoplasma gondii. J Am Vet Med Assoc 221:511–514, 2002. PUBMED Abstract
  51. Stanek JF, Stich RW, Dubey JP, et al: Epidemiology of Sarcocystis neurona infections in domestic cats (Felis domesticus) and its association with equine protozoal myeloencephalitis (EPM) case farms and feral cats from a mobile spay and neuter clinic. Vet Parasitol 117:239–249, 2003. PUBMED Abstract
  52. Hsu V, Grant DC, Dubey JP, et al: Prevalence of antibodies to Sarcocystis neurona in cats from Virginia and Pennsylvania. J Parasitol 96:800–801, 2010. PUBMED Abstract
  53. Bentz BG, Ealey KA, Morrow J, et al: Seroprevalence of antibodies to Sarcocystis neurona in equids residing in Oklahoma. J Vet Diagn Invest 15:597–600, 2003. PUBMED Abstract
  54. Bentz BG, Granstrom DE, Stamper S: Seroprevalence of antibodies to Sarcocystis neurona in horses residing in a county of southeastern Pennsylvania. J Am Vet Med Assoc 210:517–518, 1997. PUBMED Abstract
  55. Blythe LL, Granstrom DE, Hansen DE, et al: Seroprevalence of antibodies to Sarcocystis neurona in horses residing in Oregon. J Am Vet Med Assoc 210:525–527, 1997. PUBMED Abstract
  56. MacKay RJ: Serum antibodies to Sarcocystis neurona: half the horses in the United States have them! J Am Vet Med Assoc 210:482–483, 1997. PUBMED Abstract
  57. Saville WJ, Reed SM, Granstrom DE, et al: Seroprevalence of antibodies to Sarcocystis neurona in horses residing in Ohio. J Am Vet Med Assoc 210:519–524, 1997. PUBMED Abstract
  58. Tillotson K, McCue PM, Granstrom DE, et al: Seroprevalence of antibodies to Sarcocystis neurona in horses residing in northern Colorado. J Equine Vet Sci 19:122–126, 1999.
  59. Rossano MG, Kaneene JB, Marteniuk JV, et al: The seroprevalence of antibodies to Sarcocystis neurona in Michigan equids. Prev Vet Med 48:113–128, 2001. PUBMED Abstract
  60. Dubey JP, Mitchell SM, Morrow JK, et al: Prevalence of antibodies to Neospora caninum, Sarcocystis neurona, and Toxoplasma gondii in wild horses from central Wyoming. J Parasitol 89:716–720, 2003. PUBMED Abstract
  61. Vardeleon D, Marsh AE, Thorne JG, et al: Prevalence of Neospora hughesi and Sarcocystis neurona antibodies in horses from various geographical locations. Vet Parasitol 95:273–282, 2001. PUBMED Abstract
  62. Dubey JP, Venturini MC, Venturini L, et al: Prevalence of antibodies to Sarcocystis neurona, Toxoplasma gondii and Neospora caninum in horses from Argentina. Vet Parasitol 86:59–62, 1999. PUBMED Abstract
  63. Hoane JS, Gennari SM, Dubey JP, et al: Prevalence of Sarcocystis neurona and Neospora spp infection in horses from Brazil based on presence of serum antibodies to parasite surface antigen. Vet Parasitol 136:155–159, 2006. PUBMED Abstract
  64. Dubey JP, Kerber CE, Granstrom DE: Serologic prevalence of Sarcocystis neurona, Toxoplasma gondii, and Neospora caninum in horses in Brazil. J Am Vet Med Assoc 215:970–972, 1999. PUBMED Abstract
  65. Asmundsson IM, Dubey JP, Rosenthal BM: A genetically diverse but distinct North American population of Sarcocystis neurona includes an overrepresented clone described by twelve microsatellite alleles. Infect Genet Evol 6:352–360, 2006. PUBMED Abstract
  66. National Animal Health Monitoring System: Equine protozoal myeloencephalitis (EPM) in the U.S., Fort Collins, CO, 2001, USDA:APHIS:VS, CEAH, NAHMS.
  67. Granstrom DE, Alvarez O, Jr, Dubey JP, et al: Equine protozoal myelitis in Panamanian horses and isolation of Sarcocystis neurona. J Parasitol 78:909–912, 1992. PUBMED Abstract
  68. Masri MD, Alda JL, Dubey JP: Sarcocystis neurona–associated ataxia in horses in Brazil. Vet Parasitol 44:311–314, 1992. PUBMED Abstract
  69. Lam KKH, Watkins KL, Chan CW: First report of equine protozoal myeloencephalitis in Hong Kong. Equine Vet Educ 11:54–56, 1999.
  70. Ronen N: Putative equine protozoal myeloencephalitis in an imported Arabian filly. J S Afr Vet Assoc 63:78–79, 1992. PUBMED Abstract
  71. Mayhew IG, Greiner E: Protozoal diseases. Vet Clin North Am Equine Pract 2:439–459, 1986. PUBMED Abstract
  72. Weigand K, Grabner A: Equine protozoal myeloencephalitis (EPM) in an imported paint horse. Pferdeheilkunde 13:231–235, 1997.
  73. Katayama Y, Wada R, Kanemaru T, et al: First case report of Sarcocystis neurona–induced equine protozoal myeloencephalitis in Japan. J Vet Med Sci 65:757–759, 2003. PUBMED Abstract
  74. Arias M, Yeargen M, Francisco I, et al: Exposure to Sarcocystis spp. in horses from Spain determined by Western blot analysis using Sarcocystis neurona merozoites as heterologous antigen. Vet Parasitol 185(2-4):301–304, 2011. PUBMED Abstract
  75. Dubey JP, Hamir AN: Immunohistochemical confirmation of Sarcocystis neurona infections in raccoons, mink, cat, skunk, and pony. J Parasitol 86:1150–1152, 2000. PUBMED Abstract
  76. Dubey JP, Miller S: Equine protozoal myeloencephalitis in a pony. J Am Vet Med Assoc 188:1311–1312, 1986. PUBMED Abstract
  77. Marsh AE, Denver M, Hill FI, et al: Detection of Sarcocystis neurona in the brain of a Grant's zebra (Equus burchelli bohmi). J Zoo Wildl Med 31:82–86, 2000. PUBMED Abstract
  78. MacKay RJ, Davis SW, Dubey JP: Equine protozoal myeloencephalitis. Compend Conint Educ Pract Vet 14:1359–1367, 1992.
  79. Saville WJ, Reed SM, Morley PS, et al: Analysis of risk factors for the development of equine protozoal myeloencephalitis in horses. J Am Vet Med Assoc 217:1174–1180, 2000. PUBMED Abstract
  80. Fenger CK, Granstrom DE, Langemeier JL, et al: Epizootic of equine protozoal myeloencephalitis on a farm. J Am Vet Med Assoc 210:923–927, 1997. PUBMED Abstract
  81. Fayer R, Mayhew IG, Baird JD, et al. Epidemiology of equine protozoal myeloencephalitis in North America based on histologically confirmed cases. J Vet Intern Med 4:54–57, 1990. PUBMED Abstract
  82. Boy MG, Galligan DT, Divers TJ: Protozoal encephalomyelitis in horses: 82 cases (1972-1986). J Am Vet Med Assoc 196:632–634, 1990. PUBMED Abstract
  83. Rossano MG, Kaneene JB, Marteniuk JV, et al: A herd-level analysis of risk factors for antibodies to Sarcocystis neurona in Michigan equids. Prev Vet Med 57:7–13, 2003. PUBMED Abstract
  84. Rosonke BJ, Brown SR, Tornquist SJ, et al. Encephalomyelitis associated with a Sarcocystis neurona–like organism in a sea otter. J Am Vet Med Assoc 215:1839–1842, 1999. PUBMED Abstract
  85. Lindsay DS, Thomas NJ, Dubey JP: Biological characterisation of Sarcocystis neurona isolated from a Southern sea otter (Enhydra lutris nereis). Int J Parasitol 30:617–624, 2000. PUBMED Abstract
  86. Miller MA, Crosbie PR, Sverlow K, et al: Isolation and characterization of Sarcocystis from brain tissue of a free-living southern sea otter (Enhydra lutris nereis) with fatal meningoencephalitis. Parasitol Res 87:252–257, 2001. PUBMED Abstract
  87. Lapointe JM, Duignan PJ, Marsh AE, et al: Meningoencephalitis due to a Sarcocystis neurona–like protozoan in Pacific harbor seals (Phoca vitulina richardsi). J Parasitol 84:1184–1189, 1998. PUBMED Abstract
  88. Miller MA, Sverlow K, Crosbie PR, et al: Isolation and characterization of two parasitic protozoa from a Pacific harbor seal (Phoca vitulina richardsi) with meningoencephalomyelitis. J Parasitol 87:816–822, 2001. PUBMED Abstract
  89. Dubey JP, Hamir AN, Niezgoda M, et al. A Sarcocystis neurona–like organism associated with encephalitis in a striped skunk (Mephitis mephitis). J Parasitol 82:172–174, 1996. PUBMED Abstract
  90. Dubey JP, Hedstrom OR: Meningoencephalitis in mink associated with a Sarcocystis neurona–like organism. J Vet Diagn Invest 5:467–471, 1993. PUBMED Abstract
  91. Dubey JP, Hamir AN, Hanlon CA, et al: Fatal necrotizing encephalitis in a raccoon associated with a Sarcocystis-like protozoon. J Vet Diagn Invest 2:345–347, 1990. PUBMED Abstract
  92. Thulin JD, Granstrom DE, Gelberg HB, et al: Concurrent protozoal encephalitis and canine distemper virus infection in a raccoon (Procyon lotor). Vet Rec 130:162–164, 1992. PUBMED Abstract
  93. Hamir AN, Dubey JP: Myocarditis and encephalitis associated with Sarcocystis neurona infection in raccoons (Procyon lotor). Vet Parasitol 95:335–340, 2001. PUBMED Abstract
  94. Dubey JP, Higgins RJ, Barr BC, et al: Sarcocystis-associated meningoencephalomyelitis in a cat. J Vet Diagn Invest 6:118–120, 1994. PUBMED Abstract
  95. Dubey JP, Benson J, Larson MA: Clinical Sarcocystis neurona encephalomyelitis in a domestic cat following routine surgery. Vet Parasitol 112:261–267, 2003. PUBMED Abstract
  96. Klumpp SA, Anderson DC, McClure HM, et al: Encephalomyelitis due to a Sarcocystis neurona–like protozoan in a rhesus monkey (Macaca mulatta) infected with simian immunodeficiency virus. Am J Trop Med Hyg 51:332–338, 1994. PUBMED Abstract
  97. Forest TW, Abou-Madi N, Summers BA, et al: Sarcocystis neurona–like encephalitis in a Canada lynx (Felis lynx canadensis). J Zoo Wildl Med 31:383–387, 2000. PUBMED Abstract
  98. Kreuder C, Miller MA, Lowenstine LJ, et al: Evaluation of cardiac lesions and risk factors associated with myocarditis and dilated cardiomyopathy in southern sea otters (Enhydra lutris nereis). Am J Vet Res 66:289–299, 2005. PUBMED Abstract
  99. Rosenthal BM, Lindsay DS, Dubey JP: Relationships among Sarcocystis species transmitted by New World opossums (Didelphis spp.). Vet Parasitol 95:133–142, 2001. PUBMED Abstract
  100. Dubey JP, Black SS, Rickard LG, et al: Prevalence of Sarcocystis neurona sporocysts in opossums (Didelphis virginiana) from rural Mississippi. Vet Parasitol 95:283–293, 2001. PUBMED Abstract
  101. Rejmanek D, Miller MA, Grigg ME, et al: Molecular characterization of Sarcocystis neurona strains from opossums (Didelphis virginiana) and intermediate hosts from Central California. Vet Parasitol 170:20–29, 2010. PUBMED Abstract
  102. Wendte JM, Miller MA, Nandra AK, et al: Limited genetic diversity among Sarcocystis neurona strains infecting southern sea otters precludes distinction between marine and terrestrial isolates. Vet Parsitol 169:37–44, 2010. PUBMED Abstract
  103. Wendte JM, Miller MA, Lambourn DM, et al: Self-mating in the definitive host potentiates clonal outbreaks of apicomplexan parasites Sarcocystis neurona and Toxoplasma gondii. PLoS Genet 6:e1001261, 1–13, 2010. PUBMED Abstract
  104. Fenger CK, Granstrom DE, Gajadhar AA, et al: Experimental induction of equine protozoal myeloencephalitis in horses using Sarcocystis sp. sporocysts from the opossum (Didelphis virginiana). Vet Parasitol 68:199–213, 1997. PUBMED Abstract
  105. Sellon DC, Knowles DP, Greiner EC, et al: Infection of immunodeficient horses with Sarcocystis neurona does not result in neurologic disease. Clin Diagn Lab Immunol 11:1134–1139, 2004. PUBMED Abstract
  106. Saville WJ, Sofaly CD, Reed SM, et al: An equine protozoal myeloencephalitis challenge model testing a second transport after inoculation with Sarcocystis neurona sporocysts. J Parasitol 90:1406–1410, 2004. PUBMED Abstract
  107. Saville WJ, Stich RW, Reed SM, et al: Utilization of stress in the development of an equine model for equine protozoal myeloencephalitis. Vet Parasitol 95:211–222, 2001. PUBMED Abstract
  108. Cutler TJ, MacKay RJ, Ginn PE, et al: Immunoconversion against Sarcocystis neurona in normal and dexamethasone-treated horses challenged with S. neurona sporocysts. Vet Parasitol 95:197–210, 2001. PUBMED Abstract
  109. Sofaly CD, Reed SM, Gordon JC, et al: Experimental induction of equine protozoan myeloencephalitis (EPM) in the horse: effect of Sarcocystis neurona sporocyst inoculation dose on the development of clinical neurologic disease. J Parasitol 88:1164–1170, 2002. PUBMED Abstract
  110. Elitsur E, Marsh AE, Reed SM, et al: Early migration of Sarcocystis neurona in ponies fed sporocysts. J Parasitol 93:1222–1225, 2007. PUBMED Abstract
  111. Ellison SP, Greiner E, Brown KK, et al: Experimental infection of horses with culture derived Sarcocystis neurona merozoites as a model for equine protozoal myeloencephalitis. Intern J Appl Res Vet Med 2:79–89, 2004.
  112. Rossano MG, Schott HC, 2nd, Murphy AJ, et al: Parasitemia in an immunocompetent horse experimentally challenged with Sarcocystis neurona sporocysts. Vet Parasitol 127:3–8, 2005. PUBMED Abstract
  113. Long MT, Mines MT, Knowles DP, et al: Sarcocystis neurona: parasitemia in a severe combined immunodeficient (SCID) horse fed sporocysts. Exp Parasitol 100:150–154, 2002. PUBMED Abstract
  114. Ahlgrim HA, Sellon DC, Knowles DP, et al: Genetic background determines response to Sarcocystis neurona infection in immune deficient mice, 2006 (in preparation).
  115. Dubey JP, Lindsay DS, Kwok OC, et al: The gamma interferon knockout mouse model for Sarcocystis neurona: comparison of infectivity of sporocysts and merozoites and routes of inoculation. J Parasitol 87:1171–1173, 2001. PUBMED Abstract
  116. Cheadle MA, Ginn PE, Lindsay DS, et al: Neurologic disease in gamma-interferon gene knockout mice caused by Sarcocystis neurona sporocysts collected from opossums fed armadillo muscle. Vet Parasitol 103:65–69, 2002. PUBMED Abstract
  117. Fritz DL, Dubey JP: Pathology of Sarcocystis neurona in interferon-gamma gene knockout mice. Vet Pathol 39:137–140, 2002. PUBMED Abstract
  118. Dubey JP: Parasitemia and early tissue localization of Sarcocystis neurona in interferon gamma gene knockout mice fed sporocysts. J Parasitol 87:1476–1479, 2001. PUBMED Abstract
  119. Dubey JP: Migration and development of Sarcocystis neurona in tissues of interferon gamma knockout mice fed sporocysts from a naturally infected opossum. Vet Parasitol 95:341–351, 2001. PUBMED Abstract
  120. Witonsky SG, Gogal RM, Jr, Duncan RB, et al: Immunopathologic effects associated with Sarcocystis neurona–infected interferon-gamma knockout mice. J Parasitol 89:932–940, 2003. PUBMED Abstract
  121. Elitsur E, Marsh AE, Reed SM, et al: Early migration of Sarcocystis neurona in ponies fed sporocysts. J Parasitol, 2006 (in press).
  122. Rottenberg M, Kristensson K: Effects of interferon-gamma on neuronal infections. Viral Immunol 15:247–260, 2002. PUBMED Abstract
  123. Witonsky SG, Gogal RM, Jr, Duncan RB, Jr, et al: Prevention of meningo/encephalomyelitis due to Sarcocystis neurona infection in mice is mediated by CD8 cells. Int J Parasitol 35:113–123, 2005. PUBMED Abstract
  124. Witonsky SG, Gogal RM, Jr, Duncan RB, et al: Protective immune response to experimental infection with Sarcocystis neurona in 57BL/6 mice. J Parasitol 89:924–931, 2003. PUBMED Abstract
  125. Marsh AE, Barr BC, Lakritz J, et al: Experimental infection of nude mice as a model for Sarcocystis neurona-associated encephalitis. Parasitol Res 83:706–711, 1997. PUBMED Abstract
  126. Sellon DC, Knowles DP, Greiner EC, et al: Depletion of natural killer cells does not result in neurologic disease due to Sarcocystis neurona in mice with severe combined immunodeficiency. J Parasitol 90:782–788, 2004. PUBMED Abstract
  127. Liang FT, Granstrom DE, Zhao XM, et al: Evidence that surface proteins Sn14 and Sn16 of Sarcocystis neurona merozoites are involved in infection and immunity. Infect Immun 66:1834–1838, 1998. PUBMED Abstract
  128. Ellison SP, Witonsky SG: Evidence that antibodies against recombinant SnSAG1 of Sarcocystis neurona merozoites are involved in infection and immunity in equine protozoal myeloencephalitis. Can J Vet Res 73:176–183, 2009.
  129. Spencer JA, Ellison SE, Guarino AJ, et al: Cell-mediated immune responses in horses with equine protozoal myeloencephalitis. J Parasitol 90:428–430, 2004. PUBMED Abstract
  130. Yang J, Ellison S, Gogal R, et al: Immune response to Sarcocystis neurona infection in naturally infected horses with equine protozoal myeloencephalitis. Vet Parasitol 138:200–210, 2006. PUBMED Abstract
  131. Witonsky S, Ellison S, Yang J, et al: Horses experimentally infected with Sarcocystis neurona develop altered immune responses in vitro. J Parasitol 94:1047–1054, 2008. PUBMED Abstract
  132. Fenger CK: Equine protozoal myeloencephalitis. In Robinson NE, editor: Current therapy in equine medicine, ed 4, Philadelphia, 1997, Saunders, pp 329–333.
  133. MacKay RJ, Granstrom DE, Saville WJ, et al: Equine protozoal myeloencephalitis. Vet Clin North Am Equine Pract 16:405–425, 2000. PUBMED Abstract
  134. Saville WJ, Granstrom DF: Equine protozoal myeloencephalitis. In Reed SM, Bayly WM, Sellon DC, editors: Equine internal medicine, ed 2, Philadelphia, 2004, Saunders.
  135. Mayhew IG, de Lahunta A, Whitlock RH, et al: Equine protozoal myeloencephalitis. Proc Am Assoc Equine Pract 22:107–114, 1976.
  136. Mayhew IG, de Lahunta A, Whitlock RH: Spinal cord disease in the horse. Cornell Vet 68(suppl 6):177–207, 1978. PUBMED Abstract
  137. MacKay RJ: Equine protozoal myeloencephalitis. Vet Clin North Am Equine Pract 13:79–96, 1997. PUBMED Abstract
  138. Saville WJ, Morley PS, Reed SM, et al: Evaluation of risk factors associated with clinical improvement and survival of horses with equine protozoal myeloencephalitis. J Am Vet Med Assoc 217:1181–1185, 2000. PUBMED Abstract
  139. Moore LA, Johnson PJ, Messer NT, et al: Management of headshaking in three horses by treatment for protozoal myeloencephalitis. Vet Rec 141:264–267, 1997. PUBMED Abstract
  140. Dunigan CE, Oglesbee MJ, Podell M, et al: Seizure activity associated with equine protozoal myeloencephalitis. Prog Vet Neurol 6:50–54, 1995.
  141. Scarratt WK, Buechner-Maxwell VA, Karzenski S, et al: Urinary incontinence and incoordination in three horses associated with equine protozoal myeloencephalitis. J Equine Vet Sci 19:642–645, 1999.
  142. Furr M, MacKay R, Granstrom D, et al: Clinical diagnosis of equine protozoal myeloencephalitis (EPM). J Vet Intern Med 16:618–621, 2002. PUBMED Abstract
  143. Miller MM, Sweeney CR, Russell GE, et al: Effects of blood contamination of cerebrospinal fluid on Western blot analysis for detection of antibodies against Sarcocystis neurona and on albumin quotient and immunoglobulin G index in horses. J Am Vet Med Assoc 215:67–71, 1999. PUBMED Abstract
  144. Granstrom DE, Dubey JP, Davis SW, et al: Equine protozoal myeloencephalitis: antigen analysis of cultured Sarcocystis neurona merozoites. J Vet Diagn Invest 5:88–90, 1993. PUBMED Abstract
  145. Rossano MG, Mansfield LS, Kaneene JB, et al: Improvement of Western blot test specificity for detecting equine serum antibodies to Sarcocystis neurona. J Vet Diagn Invest 12:28–32, 2000. PUBMED Abstract
  146. Lindsay DS, Dubey JP: Direct agglutination test for the detection of antibodies to Sarcocystis neurona in experimentally infected animals. Vet Parasitol 95:179–186, 2001. PUBMED Abstract
  147. Duarte PC, Daft BM, Conrad PA, et al: Evaluation and comparison of an indirect fluorescent antibody test for detection of antibodies to Sarcocystis neurona, using serum and cerebrospinal fluid of naturally and experimentally infected and vaccinated horses. J Parasitol 90:379–386, 2004. PUBMED Abstract
  148. Ellison SP, Kennedy T, Brown KK: Development of an ELISA to detect antibodies to rSAG1 in the horse. Intern J Appl Res Vet Med 1:318–327, 2003.
  149. Yeargen MR, Howe DK: Improved detection of equine antibodies against Sarcocystis neurona using polyvalent ELISAs based on the parasite SnSAG surface antigens. Vet Parasitol 176:16–22, 2011. PUBMED Abstract
  150. Hoane JS, Morrow JK, Saville WJ, et al: Enzyme linked immunosorbent assays for detection of equine antibodies specific to Sarcocystis neurona surface antigens. Clin Diagn Lab Immunol 12:1050–1056, 2005. PUBMED Abstract
  151. Granstrom DE: Equine protozoal myeloencephalitis: parasite biology, experimental disease and laboratory diagnosis, International Equine Neurology Conference, 1997, pp 4–6.
  152. Mohammed HO, Swaney JR: Factors associated with the risk of equine protozoal myeloencephalitis, International Conference on Equine Infectious Diseases VIII, 1998, pp 448–449.
  153. Sielman ES, Sweeney CR, Habecker P: Correlation of antemortem Sarcocystis neurona testing with postmortem findings. J Vet Intern Med 11:105, 1997.
  154. Daft BM, Barr BC, Gardner IA, et al: Sensitivity and specificity of Western blot testing of cerebrospinal fluid and serum for diagnosis of equine protozoal myeloencephalitis in horses with and without neurologic abnormalities. J Am Vet Med Assoc 221:1007–1013, 2002. PUBMED Abstract
  155. Cohen ND, MacKay RJ: Interpreting immunoblot testing of cerebrospinal fluid for equine protozoal myeloencephalitis. Compend Contin Educ Pract Vet 19:1176–1181, 1997.
  156. Andrews FM, Maddux JM, Faulk D: Total protein, albumin quotient, IgG and IgG index determinations for horse cerebrospinal fluid. Prog Vet Neurol 1:197–204, 1990.
  157. Andrews FM, Geiser DR, Sommardahl CS, et al: Albumin quotient, IgG concentration, and IgG index determinations in cerebrospinal fluid of neonatal foals. Am J Vet Res 55:741–745, 1994. PUBMED Abstract
  158. Cook AG, Maxwell VB, Donaldson LL, et al: Detection of antibodies against Sarcocystis neurona in cerebrospinal fluid from clinically normal neonatal foals. J Am Vet Med Assoc 220:208–211, 2002. PUBMED Abstract
  159. Furr M: Antigen-specific antibodies in cerebrospinal fluid after intramuscular injection of ovalbumin in horses. J Vet Intern Med 16:588–592, 2002. PUBMED Abstract
  160. Rossano MG, Kaneene JB, Schott HC, 2nd, et al: Assessing the agreement of Western blot test results for paired serum and cerebrospinal fluid samples from horses tested for antibodies to Sarcocystis neurona. Vet Parasitol 115:233–238, 2003. PUBMED Abstract
  161. Duarte PC, Daft BM, Conrad PA, et al: Comparison of a serum indirect fluorescent antibody test with two Western blot tests for the diagnosis of equine protozoal myeloencephalitis. J Vet Diagn Invest 15:8–13, 2003. PUBMED Abstract
  162. Furr M, Howe D, Reed S, et al: Antibody coefficients for the diagnosis of equine protozoal myeloencephalitis. J Vet Intern Med 25:138–42, 2011. PUBMED Abstract
  163. SAG website for SAG6 ELISA. Available at http://pathogenes.com/technical_data, 2011.
  164. Crowdus CA, Marsh AE, Saville WJ, et al: SnSAG5 is an alternative surface antigen of Sarcocystis neurona strains that is exclusive to SnSAG. Vet Parasitol 158:36–43, 2008. PUBMED Abstract
  165. Equine Diagnostic Solutions, LLC, Lexington, KY. Available at http://equinediagnosticsolutions.com/.
  166. Johnson AL, Burton AJ, Sweeney RW: Utility of 2 immunological tests for antemortem diagnosis of equine protozoal myeloencephalitis (Sarcocystis neurona infection) in naturally occurring cases. J Vet Intern Med 24:1184–1189, 2010. PUBMED Abstract
  167. Marsh AE, Barr BC, Madigan J, et al: Sequence analysis and polymerase chain reaction amplification of small subunit ribosomal DNA from Sarcocystis neurona. Am J Vet Res 57:975–981, 1996. PUBMED Abstract
  168. Hamir AN, Moser G, Galligan DT, et al: Immunohistochemical study to demonstrate Sarcocystis neurona in equine protozoal myeloencephalitis. J Vet Diagn Invest 5:418–422, 1993. PUBMED Abstract
  169. Granstrom DE, Giles RC, Jr, Tuttle PA, et al: Immunohistochemical diagnosis of protozoan parasites in lesions of equine protozoal myeloencephalitis. J Vet Diagn Invest 3:75–77, 1991. PUBMED Abstract
  170. Mayhew IG, de Lahunta A: Neuropathology. Cornell Vet 68(suppl 6):106–147, 1978.
  171. Lech PJ: Ponazuril. Compend Contin Educ Pract Vet 24:484–485, 2002.
  172. Hackstein JH, Mackenstedt U, Mehlhorn H, et al: Parasitic apicomplexans harbor a chlorophyll a-D1 complex, the potential target for therapeutic triazines. Parasitol Res 81:207–216, 1995. PUBMED Abstract
  173. Furr M, Kennedy T: Cerebrospinal fluid and serum concentrations of ponazuril in horses. Vet Ther 2:232–237, 2001. PUBMED Abstract
  174. Lindsay DS, Dubey JP, Kennedy TJ: Determination of the activity of ponazuril against Sarcocystis neurona in cell cultures. Vet Parasitol 92:165–169, 2000. PUBMED Abstract
  175. Kennedy T, Campbell J, Selzer V: Safety of ponazuril 15% oral paste in horses. Vet Ther 2:223–231, 2001. PUBMED Abstract
  176. Furr M, Kennedy T, MacKay R, et al: Efficacy of ponazuril 15% oral paste as a treatment for equine protozoal myeloencephalitis. Vet Ther 2:215–222, 2001. PUBMED Abstract
  177. Furr M, McKenzie H, Saville WJ, et al: Prophylactic administration of ponazuril reduces clinical signs and delays seroconversion in horses challenged with Sarcocystis neurona. J Parasitol 92:637–643, 2006. PUBMED Abstract
  178. Furr M, McKenzie H, Saville WJA, et al: Prophylactic administration of ponazuril reduces clinical signs and delays seroconversion in horses challenged with Sarcocystis neurona. J Parasitol 92:637–643, 2006. PUBMED Abstract
  179. Dirikolu L, Karpiesiuk W, Lehner AF, et al: Synthesis and detection of toltrazuril sulfone and its pharmacokinetics in horses following administration in dimethylsulfoxide. J Vet Phamarcol Therap 32:368–378, 2009. PUBMED Abstract
  180. Freedom of Information Summary. NADA 141–268, 2007.
  181. Lindsay DS, Dubey JP: Determination of the activity of pyrimethamine, trimethoprim, sulfonamides, and combinations of pyrimethamine and sulfonamides against Sarcocystis neurona in cell cultures. Vet Parasitol 82:205–210, 1999. PUBMED Abstract
  182. Clarke CR, MacAllister CG, Ewing P, et al: Pharmacokinetics, penetration into cerebrospinal fluid, and hematologic effects after multiple oral administrations of pyrimethamine to horses. Am J Vet Res 53:2296–2299, 1992. PUBMED Abstract
  183. Cavallito JC, Nichol CA, Brenckman WD: Lipid-soluble inhibitors of dihydrofolate reductase. I. Kinetics, tissue distribution, and extent of metabolism of pyrimethamine, metoprine, and etoprine in the rat, dog, and man. Drug Metab Dispos 6:329–337, 1978. PUBMED Abstract
  184. Piercy RJ, Hinchcliff KW, Reed SM: Folate deficiency during treatment with orally administered folic acid, sulphadiazine and pyrimethamine in a horse with suspected equine protozoal myeloencephalitis (EPM). Equine Vet J 34:311–316, 2002. PUBMED Abstract
  185. Bedford SJ, McDonnell SM: Measurements of reproductive function in stallions treated with trimethoprim-sulfamethoxazole and pyrimethamine. J Am Vet Med Assoc 215:1317–1319, 1999. PUBMED Abstract
  186. Toribio RE, Bain FT, Mrad DR, et al: Congenital defects in newborn foals of mares treated for equine protozoal myeloencephalitis during pregnancy. J Am Vet Med Assoc 212:697–701, 1998. PUBMED Abstract
  187. Colahan PT, Bailey JE, Johnson M, et al: Effect of sulfadiazine and pyrimethamine on selected physiologic and performance parameters in athletically conditioned thoroughbred horses during an incremental exercise stress test. Vet Ther 3:49–63, 2002. PUBMED Abstract
  188. Fenger CK: Equine protozoal myeloencephalitis: efficacy and safety of treatment with a pyrimethamine and sulphadiazine combination. Proceeding of the Eighth International Conference on Equine Infectious Diseases, Dubai, 1998, pp 458–459.
  189. Dubey JP, Saville WJ, Sreekumar C, et al: Effects of high temperature and disinfectants on the viability of Sarcocystis neurona sporocysts. J Parasitol 88:1252–1254, 2002. PUBMED Abstract
  190. Kruttlin EA, Rossano MG, Murphy AJ: The effects of pyrantel tartrate on Sarcocystis neurona merozoite viability. Vet Ther 2:268–276, 2001. PUBMED Abstract
  191. Lindsay DS, Dubey JP: Determination of the activity of pyrantel tartrate against Sarcocystis neurona in gamma-interferon gene knockout mice. Vet Parasitol 97:141–144, 2001. PUBMED Abstract
  192. Rossano MG, Schott HC, Kaneene JB, et al: Effect of daily pyrantel tartrate in preventing Sarcocystis neurona infection in experimentally challenged horses. Am J Vet Res 66:846–852, 2005.
  193. Dubey JP, Fritz D, Lindsay DS, et al: Diclazuril preventive therapy of gamma interferon knockout mice fed Sarcocystis neurona sporocysts. Vet Parasitol 94:257–264, 2001. PUBMED Abstract
  194. Witonsky S, Morrow JK, Leger C, et al: Sarcocystis neurona–specific immunoglobulin G in the serum and cerebrospinal fluid of horses administered S. neurona vaccine. J Vet Intern Med 18:98–103, 2004. PUBMED Abstract
  195. Marsh AE, Lakritz J, Johnson PJ, et al: Evaluation of immune responses in horses immunized using a killed Sarcocystis neurona vaccine. Vet Ther 5:34–42, 2004. PUBMED Abstract