Chapter 23 Equine Infectious Anemia

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  3. Kobayashi K, Kono Y: Propagation and titration of equine infectious anemia virus in horse leukocyte culture. Natl Inst Anim Health Q Tokyo 7:8–20, 1967. PUBMED Abstract
  4. Kono Y, Yoshino T, Fukunaga Y: Growth characteristics of equine infectious anemia virus in horse leukocyte cultures. Arch Gesamte Virusforsch 30:252–256, 1970. PUBMED Abstract
  5. Kono Y, Yoshino T: Propagation of equine infectious anemia virus in horse kidney cell cultures. Natl Inst Anim Health Q Tokyo 14:155–162, 1974. PUBMED Abstract
  6. Malmquist WA, Barnett D, Becvar CS: Production of equine infectious anemia antigen in a persistently infected cell line. Arch Gesamte Virusforsch 42(4):361–370, 1973. PUBMED Abstract
  7. Montelaro RC, Ball JM, Rushlow KE: Equine Retroviruses. In: Levy JA, editor: The Retroviridae, New York, 1993, Plenum Press, pp 257–360.
  8. Zhang B, Jin S, Jin J, et al: A tumor necrosis factor receptor family protein serves as a cellular receptor for the macrophage-tropic equine lentivirus. Proc Natl Acad Sci 102(28):9918–9923, 2005. PUBMED Abstract
  9. OIE: OIE Listed Diseases, 2012. http://www.oie.int/animal-health-in-the-world/oie-listed-diseases-2012.
  10. Coggins L, Norcross NL: Immunodiffusion reaction in equine infectious anemia. Cornell Vet 60(2):330–335, 1970. PUBMED Abstract
  11. Coggins L, Norcross NL, Nusbaum SR: Diagnosis of equine infectious anemia by immunodiffusion test. Am J Vet Res 33(1):11–18, 1972. PUBMED Abstract
  12. USDA-APHIS: Equine infectious anemia info sheet, 2006. http://www.aphis.usda.gov/vs/nahss/equine/eia/eia_info_sheet.pdf.
  13. USDA-APHIS: 2010 Summary of equine infectious anemia cases in the United States, 2010. http://www.aphis.usda.gov/vs/nahss/equine/eia/2010_eia_report.pdf.
  14. American Horse Council: National economic impact of the U.S. horse industry, 2005. http://www.horsecouncil.org/national-economic-impact-us-horse-industry.
  15. USDA NAHMS: Equine 2005: Changes in the U.S. equine industry, 1998–2005. http://www.aphis.usda.gov/animal_health/nahms/equine/downloads/equine05/Equine05_dr_PartII.pdf.
  16. DEFRA: Qualitative assessment of the risk of introduction of equine infectious anaemia (EIA) into Great Britain from an EIA endemic area through temporary movement of UK origin horses, 2011. http://archive.defra.gov.uk/foodfarm/farmanimal/diseases/monitoring/documents/qra-eia-horse-movements-110624.pdf.
  17. More SJ, Aznar I, Bailey DC, et al: An outbreak of equine infectious anaemia in Ireland during 2006: investigation methodology, initial source of infection, diagnosis and clinical presentation, modes of transmission and spread in the Meath cluster. Equine Vet J 40(7):706–708, 2008. PUBMED Abstract
  18. OIE: EIA Disease Information, 2012. http://web.oie.int/wahis/public.php?WAHIDPHPSESSID=53da725c91832483edede124ffe1177e&page=disease_status_lists&disease_type=Terrestrial&disease_id=59.
  19. More SJ, Aznar I, Myers T, et al: An outbreak of equine infectious anaemia in Ireland during 2006: the modes of transmission and spread in the Kildare cluster. Equine Vet J 40(7):709–711, 2008. PUBMED Abstract
  20. Brangan P, Bailey DC, Larkin JF, et al: Management of the national programme to eradicate equine infectious anaemia from Ireland during 2006: a review. Equine Vet J 40(7):702–704, 2008. PUBMED Abstract
  21. Issel CJ, Foil LD: Studies on equine infectious anemia virus transmission by insects. J Am Vet Med Assoc 184(3):293–297, 1984. PUBMED Abstract
  22. Foil LD, Meek CL, Adams WV, et al: Mechanical transmission of equine infectious anemia virus by deer flies (Chrysops flavidus) and stable flies (Stomoxys calcitrans). Am J Vet Res 44(1):155–156, 1983. PUBMED Abstract
  23. Hawkins JA, Adams WV, Cook L, et al: Role of horse fly (Tabanus fuscicostatus Hine) and stable fly (Stomoxys calcitrans L.) in transmission of equine infectious anemia to ponies in Louisiana. Am J Vet Res 34(12):1583–1586, 1973. PUBMED Abstract
  24. Hawkins JA, Adams WV, Jr, Wilson BH, et al: Transmission of equine infectious anemia virus by Tabanus fuscicostatus. J Am Vet Med Assoc 168(1):63–64, 1976. PUBMED Abstract
  25. Williams DL, Issel CJ, Steelman CD, et al: Studies with equine infectious anemia virus: transmission attempts by mosquitoes and survival of virus on vector mouthparts and hypodermic needles, and in mosquito tissue culture. Am J Vet Res 42(9):1469–1473, 1981. PUBMED Abstract
  26. Issel CJ, Adams WV, Jr, Meek L, et al: Transmission of equine infectious anemia virus from horses without clinical signs of disease. J Am Vet Med Assoc 180(3):272–275, 1982. PUBMED Abstract
  27. Foil LD, Adams WV, McManus JM, et al: Bloodmeal residues on mouthparts of Tabanus fuscicostatus (Diptera: Tabanidae) and the potential for mechanical transmission of pathogens. J Med Entomol 24(6):613–616, 1987. PUBMED Abstract
  28. Foil L: A mark-recapture method for measuring effects of spatial separation of horses on tabanid (Diptera) movement between hosts. J Med Entomol 20(3):301–305, 1983. PUBMED Abstract
  29. Kemen MJ, Jr, Coggins L: Equine infectious anemia: transmission from infected mares to foals. J Am Vet Med Assoc 161(5):496–499, 1972. PUBMED Abstract
  30. Tashjian RJ: Transmission and clinical evaluation of an equine infectious anemia herd and their offspring over a 13-year period. J Am Vet Med Assoc 184(3):282–288, 1984. PUBMED Abstract
  31. Umphenour NW, Kemen MJ, Coggins L: Equine infectious anemia: a retrospective study of an epizootic. J Am Vet Med Assoc 164(1):66–69, 1974. PUBMED Abstract
  32. Burns SJ: Equine infectious anemia: plasma clearance times of passively transferred antibody in foals. J Am Vet Med Assoc 164(1):64–65, 1974. PUBMED Abstract
  33. Issel CJ, Adams WV, Jr, Foil LD: Prospective study of progeny of inapparent equine carriers of equine infectious anemia virus. Am J Vet Res 46(5):1114–1116, 1985. PUBMED Abstract
  34. McConnico RS, Issel CJ, Cook SJ, et al: Predictive methods to define infection with equine infectious anemia virus in foals out of reactor mares. J Equine Vet Sci 20(6):387–392, 2000.
  35. Cheevers WP, McGuire TC: Equine infectious anemia virus: immunopathogenesis and persistence. Rev Infect Dis 7(1):83–88, 1985. PUBMED Abstract
  36. McGuire TC, O'Rourke KI, Perryman LE: Immunopathogenesis of equine infectious anemia lentivirus disease. Dev Biol Stand 72:31–37, 1990. PUBMED Abstract
  37. Sellon DC, Fuller FJ, McGuire TC: The immunopathogenesis of equine infectious anemia virus. Virus Res 32(2):111–138, 1994. PUBMED Abstract
  38. McGuire TC, Crawford TB, Henson JB: Immunofluorescent localization of equine infectious anemia virus in tissue. Am J Pathol 62(2):283–294, 1971. PUBMED Abstract
  39. Sellon DC, Perry ST, Coggins L, et al: Wild-type equine infectious anemia virus replicates in vivo predominantly in tissue macrophages, not in peripheral blood monocytes. J Virol 66(10):5906–5913, 1992. PUBMED Abstract
  40. Oaks JL, McGuire TC, Ulibarri C, et al: Equine infectious anemia virus is found in tissue macrophages during subclinical infection. J Virol 72(9):7263–7269, 1998. PUBMED Abstract
  41. Harrold SM, Cook SJ, Cook RF, et al: Tissue sites of persistent infection and active replication of equine infectious anemia virus during acute disease and asymptomatic infection in experimentally infected equids. J Virol 74(7):3112–3121, 2000. PUBMED Abstract
  42. Oaks JL, Ulibarri C, Crawford TB: Endothelial cell infection in vivo by equine infectious anaemia virus. J Gen Virol 80(Pt 9):2393–2397, 1999. PUBMED Abstract
  43. McGuire TC, Crawford TB, Henson JB: Equine infectious anemia: detection of infectious virus-antibody complexes in the serum. Immunol Commun 1(6):545–551, 1972. PUBMED Abstract
  44. Lim WS, Payne SL, Edwards JF, et al: Differential effects of virulent and avirulent equine infectious anemia virus on macrophage cytokine expression. Virol 332(1):295–306, 2005. PUBMED Abstract
  45. Costa LR, Santos IK, Issel CJ, et al: Tumor necrosis factor-alpha production and disease severity after immunization with enriched major core protein (p26) and/or infection with equine infectious anemia virus. Vet Immunol Immunopathol 57(1–2):33–47, 1997. PUBMED Abstract
  46. Sellon DC, Russell KE, Monroe VL, et al: Increased interleukin-6 activity in the serum of ponies acutely infected with equine infectious anaemia virus. Res Vet Sci 66(1):77–80, 1999. PUBMED Abstract
  47. Tornquist SJ, Oaks JL, Crawford TB: Elevation of cytokines associated with the thrombocytopenia of equine infectious anaemia. J Gen Virol 78, 1997. PUBMED Abstract
  48. Clabough DL, Gebhard D, Flaherty MT, et al: Immune-mediated thrombocytopenia in horses infected with equine infectious anemia virus. J Virol 65(11):6242–6251, 1991. PUBMED Abstract
  49. Crawford TB, Wardrop KJ, Tornquist SJ, et al: A primary production deficit in the thrombocytopenia of equine infectious anemia. J Virol 70(11):7842–7850, 1996. PUBMED Abstract
  50. McGuire TC, Banks KL, Poppie MJ: Combined immunodeficiency in horses: characterization of the lymphocyte defect. Clin Immunol Immunopathol 3(4):555–566, 1975. PUBMED Abstract
  51. Shin EK, Perryman LE, Meek K: A kinase-negative mutation of DNA-PK(CS) in equine SCID results in defective coding and signal joint formation. J Immunol 158(8):3565–3569, 1997. PUBMED Abstract
  52. Tornquist SJ, Crawford TB: Suppression of megakaryocyte colony growth by plasma from foals infected with equine infectious anemia virus. Blood 90(6):2357–2363, 1997. PUBMED Abstract
  53. Russell KE, Perkins PC, Hoffman MR, et al: Platelets from thrombocytopenic ponies acutely infected with equine infectious anemia virus are activated in vivo and hypofunctional. Virol 259(1):7–19, 1999. PUBMED Abstract
  54. McGuire TC, Henson JB, Quist SE: Viral-induced hemolysis in equine infectious anemia. Am J Vet Res 30(12):2091–2097, 1969. PUBMED Abstract
  55. Banks KL: Monocyte activation in horses persistently infected with equine infectious anemia virus. Infect Immun 12(5):1219–1221, 1975. PUBMED Abstract
  56. Sentsui H, Kono Y: Hemagglutination of several strains of equine infectious anemia virus. Arch Virol 67(1):75–84, 1981. PUBMED Abstract
  57. Sentsui H, Kono Y: Complement-mediated hemolysis of horse erythrocytes treated with equine infectious anemia virus. Arch Virol 95(1–2):53–66, 1987. PUBMED Abstract
  58. McGuire TC, Henson JB, Burger D: Complement (C′3)-coated red blood cells following infection with the virus of equine infectious anemia. J Immunol 103(2):293–299, 1969. PUBMED Abstract
  59. Sentsui H, Kono Y: Phagocytosis of horse erythrocytes treated with equine infectious anemia virus by cultivated horse leukocytes. Arch Virol 95(1–2):67–77, 1987. PUBMED Abstract
  60. Perryman LE, O'Rourke KI, McGuire TC: Immune responses are required to terminate viremia in equine infectious anemia lentivirus infection. J Virol 62(8):3073–3076, 1988. PUBMED Abstract
  61. Swardson CJ, Kociba GJ, Perryman LE: Effects of equine infectious anemia virus on hematopoietic progenitors in vitro. Am J Vet Res 53(7):1176–1179, 1992. PUBMED Abstract
  62. McGuire TC, Henson JB, Quist SE: Impaired bone marrow response in equine infectious anemia. Am J Vet Res 30(12):2099–2104, 1969. PUBMED Abstract
  63. Mealey RH, Fraser DG, Oaks JL, et al: Immune reconstitution prevents continuous equine infectious anemia virus replication in an arabian foal with severe combined immunodeficiency: lessons for control of lentiviruses. Clin Immunol 101(2):237–247, 2001. PUBMED Abstract
  64. Kono Y: Viremia and immunological responses in horses infected with equine infectious anemia virus. Natl Inst Anim Health Q Tokyo 9(1):1–9, 1969. PUBMED Abstract
  65. Kono Y, Kobayashi K, Fukunaga Y: Antigenic drift of equine infectious anemia virus in chronically infected horses. Arch Gesamte Virusforsch 41(1):1–10, 1973. PUBMED Abstract
  66. Kono Y: Antigenic variation of equine infectious anemia virus as detected by virus neutralization. Brief report. Arch Virol 98(1–2):91–97, 1988. PUBMED Abstract
  67. O'Rourke K, Perryman LE, McGuire TC: Antiviral, anti-glycoprotein and neutralizing antibodies in foals with equine infectious anaemia virus. J Gen Virol 69:667–674, 1988. PUBMED Abstract
  68. Mealey RH, Leib SR, Pownder SL, et al: Adaptive immunity is the primary force driving selection of equine infectious anemia virus envelope SU variants during acute infection. J Virol 78(17):9295–9305, 2004. PUBMED Abstract
  69. Ball JM, Rushlow KE, Issel CJ, et al: Detailed mapping of the antigenicity of the surface unit glycoprotein of equine infectious anemia virus by using synthetic peptide strategies. J Virol 66(2):732–742, 1992. PUBMED Abstract
  70. Howe L, Leroux C, Issel CJ, et al: Equine infectious anemia virus envelope evolution in vivo during persistent infection progressively increases resistance to in vitro serum antibody neutralization as a dominant phenotype. J Virol 76(21):10588–10597, 2002. PUBMED Abstract
  71. Sponseller BA, Sparks WO, Wannemuehler Y, et al: Immune selection of equine infectious anemia virus Env variants during the long-term inapparent stage of disease. Virol 363(1):156–165, 2007. PUBMED Abstract
  72. Taylor SD, Leib SR, Carpenter S, et al: Selection of a rare neutralization-resistant variant following passive transfer of convalescent immune plasma in equine infectious anemia virus-challenged SCID horses. J Virol 84(13):6536–6548, 2010. PUBMED Abstract
  73. Taylor SD, Leib SR, Wu W, et al: Protective effects of broadly neutralizing immunoglobulin against homologous and heterologous equine infectious anemia virus infection in horses with severe combined immunodeficiency. J Virol 85(13):6814–6818, 2011. PUBMED Abstract
  74. Craigo JK, Zhang B, Barnes S, et al: Envelope variation as a primary determinant of lentiviral vaccine efficacy. Proc Natl Acad Sci 104(38):15105–15110, 2007. PUBMED Abstract
  75. Kono Y, Hirasawa K, Fukunaga Y, et al: Recrudescence of equine infectious anemia by treatment with immunosuppressive drugs. Natl Inst Anim Health Q Tokyo 16(1):8–15, 1976. PUBMED Abstract
  76. Tumas DB, Hines MT, Perryman LE, et al: Corticosteroid immunosuppression and monoclonal antibody-mediated CD5+ T lymphocyte depletion in normal and equine infectious anaemia virus-carrier horses. J Gen Virol 75:959–968, 1994. PUBMED Abstract
  77. Kono Y, Fukunaga Y, Kobayashi K: Resistance of horses infected chronically with equine infectious anemia virus against reinfection. Natl Inst Anim Health Q Tokyo 13(4):173–181, 1973. PUBMED Abstract
  78. Issel CJ, Horohov DW, Lea DF, et al: Efficacy of inactivated whole-virus and subunit vaccines in preventing infection and disease caused by equine infectious anemia virus. J Virol 66(6):3398–3408, 1992. PUBMED Abstract
  79. McGuire TC, Fraser DG, Mealey RH: Cytotoxic T lymphocytes and neutralizing antibody in the control of equine infectious anemia virus. Viral Immunol 15(4):521–531, 2002. PUBMED Abstract
  80. Hammond SA, Cook SJ, Lichtenstein DL, et al: Maturation of the cellular and humoral immune responses to persistent infection in horses by equine infectious anemia virus is a complex and lengthy process. J Virol 71(5):3840–3852, 1997. PUBMED Abstract
  81. McGuire TC, Tumas DB, Byrne KM, et al: Major histocompatibility complex-restricted CD8+ cytotoxic T lymphocytes from horses with equine infectious anemia virus recognize Env and Gag/PR proteins. J Virol 68(3):1459–1467, 1994. PUBMED Abstract
  82. Carpenter S, Evans LH, Sevoian M, et al: Role of the host immune response in selection of equine infectious anemia virus variants. J Virol 61(12):3783–3789, 1987. PUBMED Abstract
  83. Rwambo PM, Issel CJ, Adams WV, Jr, et al: Equine infectious anemia virus (EIAV) humoral responses of recipient ponies and antigenic variation during persistent infection. Arch Virol 111(3–4):199–212, 1990. PUBMED Abstract
  84. Salinovich O, Payne SL, Montelaro RC, et al: Rapid emergence of novel antigenic and genetic variants of equine infectious anemia virus during persistent infection. J Virol 57(1):71–80, 1986. PUBMED Abstract
  85. Lonning SM, Zhang W, Leib SR, et al: Detection and induction of equine infectious anemia virus-specific cytotoxic T-lymphocyte responses by use of recombinant retroviral vectors. J Virol 73(4):2762–2769, 1999. PUBMED Abstract
  86. McGuire TC, Leib SR, Lonning SM, et al: Equine infectious anaemia virus proteins with epitopes most frequently recognized by cytotoxic T lymphocytes from infected horses. J Gen Virol 81(Pt 11):2735–2739, 2000. PUBMED Abstract
  87. Mealey RH, Zhang B, Leib SR, et al: Epitope specificity is critical for high and moderate avidity cytotoxic T lymphocytes associated with control of viral load and clinical disease in horses with equine infectious anemia virus. Virol 313(2):537–552, 2003. PUBMED Abstract
  88. Zhang W, Lonning SM, McGuire TC: Gag protein epitopes recognized by ELA-A-restricted cytotoxic T lymphocytes from horses with long-term equine infectious anemia virus infection. J Virol 72(12):9612–9620, 1998. PUBMED Abstract
  89. Chung C, Mealey RH, McGuire TC: CTL from EIAV carrier horses with diverse MHC class I alleles recognize epitope clusters in Gag matrix and capsid proteins. Virol 327(1):144–154, 2004. PUBMED Abstract
  90. Chung C, Mealey RH, McGuire TC: Evaluation of high functional avidity CTL to Gag epitope clusters in EIAV carrier horses. Virol 342(2):228–239, 2005. PUBMED Abstract
  91. McGuire TC, Leib SR, Mealey RH, et al: Presentation and binding affinity of equine infectious anemia virus CTL envelope and matrix protein epitopes by an expressed equine classical MHC class I molecule. J Immunol 171:1984–1993, 2003. PUBMED Abstract
  92. McGuire TC, Fraser DG, Mealey RH: Cytotoxic T lymphocytes in protection against equine infectious anemia virus. Anim Health Res Rev 5(2):271–276, 2004. PUBMED Abstract
  93. Mealey RH, Sharif A, Ellis SA, et al: Early detection of dominant Env-specific and subdominant Gag-specific CD8+ lymphocytes in equine infectious anemia virus-infected horses using major histocompatibility complex class I/peptide tetrameric complexes. Virol 339(1):110–126, 2005. PUBMED Abstract
  94. Mealey RH, Lee JH, Leib SR, et al: A single amino acid difference within the alpha-2 domain of two naturally occurring equine MHC class I molecules alters the recognition of Gag and Rev epitopes by equine infectious anemia virus-specific CTL. J Immunol 177(10):7377–7390, 2006. PUBMED Abstract
  95. Zhang W, Auyong DB, Oaks JL, et al: Natural variation of equine infectious anemia virus Gag protein cytotoxic T lymphocyte epitopes. Virol 261(2):242–252, 1999. PUBMED Abstract
  96. Kemeny LJ, Mott LO, Pearson JE: Titration of equine infectious anemia virus. Effect of dosage on incubation time and clinical signs. Cornell Vet 61(4):687–695, 1971. PUBMED Abstract
  97. Cook SJ, Cook RF, Montelaro RC, et al: Differential responses of Equus caballus and Equus asinus to infection with two pathogenic strains of equine infectious anemia virus. Vet Microbiol 79(2):93–109, 2001. PUBMED Abstract
  98. Issel CJ, Coggins L: Equine infectious anemia: current knowledge. J Am Vet Med Assoc 174(7):727–733, 1979. PUBMED Abstract
  99. Crawford TB, Cheevers WP, Klevjer-Anderson P, et al: Equine infectious anemia: virion characteristics, virus-cell interaction and host responses, ICN-UCLA. Symp Mol Cell Biol 11:727–749, 1978.
  100. Montelaro RC, Parekh B, Orrego A, et al: Antigenic variation during persistent infection by equine infectious anemia virus, a retrovirus. J Biol Chem 259(16):10539–10544, 1984. PUBMED Abstract
  101. McClure JJ, Lindsay WA, Taylor W, et al: Ataxia in four horses with equine infectious anemia. J Am Vet Med Assoc 180(3):279–283, 1982. PUBMED Abstract
  102. Oaks JL, Long MT, Baszler TV: Leukoencephalitis associated with selective viral replication in the brain of a pony with experimental chronic equine infectious anemia virus infection. Vet Pathol 41(5):527–532, 2004. PUBMED Abstract
  103. Issel CJ, Adams WV, Jr: Serologic survey for equine infectious anemia virus in Louisiana. J Am Vet Med Assoc 174(3):286–288, 1979. PUBMED Abstract
  104. Cook RF, Cook SJ, Li FL, et al: Development of a multiplex real-time reverse transcriptase-polymerase chain reaction for equine infectious anemia virus (EIAV). J Virol Methods 105(1):171–179, 2002. PUBMED Abstract
  105. Langemeier JL, Cook SJ, Cook RF, et al: Detection of equine infectious anemia viral RNA in plasma samples from recently infected and long-term inapparent carrier animals by PCR. J Clin Microbiol 34(6):1481–1487, 1996. PUBMED Abstract
  106. Perryman LE, Torbeck RL: Combined immunodeficiency of Arabian horses: confirmation of autosomal recessive mode of inheritance. J Am Vet Med Assoc 176(11):1250–1251, 1980. PUBMED Abstract
  107. Banks KL, Henson JB, McGuire TC: Immunologically mediated glomerulitis of horses. I. Pathogenesis in persistent infection by equine infectious anemia virus. Lab Invest 26(6):701–707, 1972. PUBMED Abstract
  108. Murakami K, Sentsui H, Shibahara T, et al: Reduction of CD4+ and CD8+ T lymphocytes during febrile periods in horses experimentally infected with equine infectious anemia virus. Vet Immunol Immunopathol 67(2):131–140, 1999. PUBMED Abstract
  109. Newman MJ, Issel CJ, Truax RE, et al: Transient suppression of equine immune responses by equine infectious anemia virus (EIAV). Virology 184(1):55–66, 1991. PUBMED Abstract
  110. Craigo JK, Li F, Steckbeck JD, et al: Discerning an effective balance between equine infectious anemia virus attenuation and vaccine efficacy. J Virol 79(5):2666–2677, 2005. PUBMED Abstract
  111. Li F, Craigo JK, Howe L, et al: A live attenuated equine infectious anemia virus proviral vaccine with a modified S2 gene provides protection from detectable infection by intravenous virulent virus challenge of experimentally inoculated horses. J Virol 77(13):7244–7253, 2003. PUBMED Abstract
  112. Shen RX, Wang Z: Development and use of an equine infectious anemia donkey leucocyte attenuated vaccine EIAV: a national review of policies, programs, and future objectives, Amarillo, TX, 1985, American Quarter Horse Association.
  113. Lin YZ, Shen RX, Zhu ZY, et al: An attenuated EIAV vaccine strain induces significantly different immune responses from its pathogenic parental strain although with similar in vivo replication pattern. Antiviral Res 92(2):292–304, 2011. PUBMED Abstract
  114. Shen T, Liang H, Tong X, et al: Amino acid mutations of the infectious clone from Chinese EIAV attenuated vaccine resulted in reversion of virulence. Vaccine 24(6):738–749, 2006. PUBMED Abstract
  115. Zhang X, Wang Y, Liang H, et al: Correlation between the induction of Th1 cytokines by an attenuated equine infectious anemia virus vaccine and protection against disease progression. J Gen Virol 88(Pt 3):998–1004, 2007.