Chapter 12 Laboratory Diagnosis of Viral Infections

  1. Goodman LB, Loregian A, Perkins GA, et al: A point mutation in a herpesvirus polymerase determines neuropathogenicity. PLos Pathog 3:1583–1592, 2007. PUBMED Abstract
  2. Storch GA: Diagnostic virology. Clin Infect Dis 31:739, 2000. PUBMED Abstract
  3. Monath TP, McLean RG, Cropp CB, et al: Diagnosis of eastern equine encephalomyelitis by immunofluorescent staining of brain tissue. Am J Vet Res 42:1418, 1981. PUBMED Abstract
  4. Quinlivan M, Cullinane A, Nelly M, et al: Comparative sensitivities of virus isolation, antigen detection, and nucleic acid amplification for detection of equine influenza virus. J Clin Microbiol 42:759, 2004. PUBMED Abstract
  5. Koekemoer JJ, Dijk AA: African horse sickness virus serotyping and identification of multiple co-infecting serotypes with a single genome segment 2 RT-PCR amplification and reverse line blot hybridization. J Virol Methods 122:49, 2004. PUBMED Abstract
  6. Van Maanen C, van Essen GJ, Minke J, et al: Diagnostic methods applied to analysis of an outbreak of equine influenza in a riding school in which vaccine failure occurred. Vet Microbiol 93:291, 2003. PUBMED Abstract
  7. Elia G, Decaro N, Martella V, et al: Detection of equine herpesvirus type 1 by real time PCR. J Virol Methods 133:70–75, 2006. PUBMED Abstract
  8. Elschner M, Prudlo J, Hotzel H, et al: Nested reverse transcription–polymerase chain reaction for the detection of group A rotaviruses. J Vet Med B Infect Dis Vet Public Health 49:77, 2002. PUBMED Abstract
  9. Johnson DJ, Ostlund EN, Schmitt BJ: Nested multiplex RT-PCR for detection and differentiation of West Nile virus and eastern equine encephalomyelitis virus in brain tissues. J Vet Diagn Invest 15:488, 2003. PUBMED Abstract
  10. Kleiboeker SB, Chapman RK: Detection of equine herpesvirus 3 in equine skin lesions by polymerase chain reaction. J Vet Diagn Invest 16:74, 2004. PUBMED Abstract
  11. Martens A, De Moor A, Demeulemeester J, et al: Polymerase chain reaction analysis of the surgical margins of equine sarcoids for bovine papilloma virus DNA. Vet Surg 30:460, 2001. PUBMED Abstract
  12. Nordengrahn A, Merza M, Ros C, et al: Prevalence of equine herpesvirus types 2 and 5 in horse populations by using type-specific PCR assays. Vet Res 33:251, 2002. PUBMED Abstract
  13. Studdert MJ, Azuolas JK, Vasey JR, et al: Polymerase chain reaction tests for the identification of Ross River, Kunjin and Murray Valley encephalitis virus infections in horses. Aust Vet J 81:76, 2003. PUBMED Abstract
  14. Szeredi L, Hornyak A, Denes B, et al: Equine viral arteritis in a newborn foal: parallel detection of the virus by immunohistochemistry, polymerase chain reaction and virus isolation. J Vet Med B Infect Dis Vet Public Health 50:270, 2003. PUBMED Abstract
  15. Tewari D, Kim H, Feria W, et al: Detection of West Nile virus using formalin-fixed paraffin-embedded tissues in crows and horses: quantification of viral transcripts by real-time RT-PCR. J Clin Virol 30:320, 2004. PUBMED Abstract
  16. Varrasso A, Dynon K, Ficorilli N, et al: Identification of equine herpesviruses 1 and 4 by polymerase chain reaction. Aust Vet J 79:563, 2001. PUBMED Abstract
  17. Westcott DG, King DP, Drew TW, et al: Use of an internal standard in a closed one-tube RT-PCR for the detection of equine arteritis virus RNA with fluorescent probes. Vet Res 34:165, 2003. PUBMED Abstract
  18. Daum LT, Canas LC, Schadler CA, et al: A rapid, single-step multiplex reverse transcription-PCR assay for the detection of human H1N1, H3N2, and B influenza viruses. J Clin Virol 25:345, 2002. PUBMED Abstract
  19. Young KK, Resnick RM, Myers TW: Detection of hepatitis C virus RNA by a combined reverse transcription–polymerase chain reaction assay. J Clin Microbiol 31:882, 1993. PUBMED Abstract
  20. Read SJ, Burnett D, Fink CG: Molecular techniques for clinical diagnostic virology. J Clin Pathol 53:502, 2000. PUBMED Abstract
  21. Foote CE, Love DN, Gilkerson JR, et al: Detection of EHV-1 and EHV-4 DNA in unweaned Thoroughbred foals from vaccinated mares on a large stud farm. Equine Vet J 36:341, 2004. PUBMED Abstract
  22. Slater JD, Borchers K, Thackray AM, et al: The trigeminal ganglion is a location for equine herpesvirus 1 latency and reactivation in the horse. J Gen Virol 75:2007, 1994. PUBMED Abstract
  23. Welch HM, Bridges CG, Lyon AM, et al: Latent equid herpesviruses 1 and 4: detection and distinction using the polymerase chain reaction and co-cultivation from lymphoid tissues. J Gen Virol 73:261, 1992. PUBMED Abstract
  24. Murray K, Selleck P, Hooper P, et al: A Morbillivirus that caused fatal disease in horses and humans. Science 268:94, 1995. PUBMED Abstract
  25. Kleiboeker SB, Schommer SK, Johnson PJ, et al: Association of two newly recognized herpesviruses with interstitial pneumonia in donkeys (Equus asinus). J Vet Diagn Invest 14:273, 2002. PUBMED Abstract
  26. Allander T, Emerson SU, Engle RE, et al: A virus discovery method incorporating DNase treatment and its application to the identification of two bovine parvovirus species. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 98:11609, 2001. PUBMED Abstract
  27. Ivens PA, et al: Molecular characterisation of “strangles” outbreaks in the UK: the use of M-protein typing of Streptococcus equi ssp. equi. Equine Vet J 43(3):359–364, 2011. PUBMED Abstract
  28. Murcia PR, et al: Intra- and interhost evolutionary dynamics of equine influenza virus. J Virol 84(14):6943–6954, 2010. PUBMED Abstract
  29. Chung TH, et al: A rapid molecular method for diagnosing epidemic dermatophytosis in a racehorse facility. Equine Vet J 42(1):73–78, 2010. PUBMED Abstract
  30. Haines DM, Chelack BJ: Technical considerations for developing enzyme immunohistochemical staining procedures on formalin-fixed paraffin-embedded tissues for diagnostic pathology. J Vet Diagn Invest 3:101, 1991. PUBMED Abstract
  31. Kohler A, Lauritzen B, Van Noorden CJF: Signal amplification in immunohistochemistry at the light microscopic level using biotinylated tyramide and nanogold-silver staining. J Histochem Cytochem 48:933, 2000. PUBMED Abstract
  32. Del Piero F: Diagnosis of equine arteritis virus infection in two horses by using monoclonal antibody immunoperoxidase histochemistry on skin biopsies. Vet Pathol 37:486, 2000. PUBMED Abstract
  33. Gerst S, Borchers K, Gower SM, et al: Detection of EHV-1 and EHV-4 in placental sections of naturally occurring EHV-1- and EHV-4-related abortions in the UK: use of the placenta in diagnosis. Equine Vet J 35:430, 2003. PUBMED Abstract
  34. Gimeno EJ, Nosetto EO, Martin AA, et al: Demonstration of equine herpes virus 1 (EHV-1) in histological sections and tissue cultures by the peroxidase-antiperoxidase (PAP) technique. Zentralbl Veterinarmed B 34:740, 1987. PUBMED Abstract
  35. Patterson JS, Maes RK, Mullaney TP, et al: Immunohistochemical diagnosis of eastern equine encephalomyelitis. J Vet Diagn Invest 8:156, 1996. PUBMED Abstract
  36. Schultheiss PC, Collins JK, Carman J: Use of an immunoperoxidase technique to detect equine herpesvirus-1 antigen in formalin-fixed paraffin-embedded equine fetal tissues. J Vet Diagn Invest 5:12, 1993. PUBMED Abstract
  37. Sironi G, Caniatti M, Scanziani E: Immunohistochemical detection of papillomavirus structural antigens in animal hyperplastic and neoplastic epithelial lesions. Zentralbl Veterinarmed A 37:760, 1990. PUBMED Abstract
  38. Mcloughlin KS: Microarrays for pathogen detection and analysis. Brief Funct Genomics 10:342–353, 2011. PUBMED Abstract
  39. Feilotter HE: Microarrays in veterinary diagnostics. Anim Health Res Rev 5(2):249–255, 2004. PUBMED Abstract
  40. Ojha S, Kostrzynska M: Examination of animal and zoonotic pathogens using microarrays. Vet Res 39(1):4, 2008. PUBMED Abstract
  41. Lory S, von Tscharner C, Marti E, et al: In situ hybridisation of equine sarcoids with bovine papilloma virus. Vet Rec 132:132, 1993. PUBMED Abstract
  42. Oaks JL, Long MT, Baszler TV: Leukoencephalitis associated with selective viral replication in the brain of a pony with experimental chronic equine infectious anemia virus infection. Vet Pathol 41:527, 2004. PUBMED Abstract
  43. Conner ME, Gillespie JH, Schiff EI, et al: Detection of rotavirus in horses with and without diarrhea by electron microscopy and rotazyme test. Cornell Vet 73:280, 1983. PUBMED Abstract
  44. Ellis GR, Daniels E: Comparison of direct electron microscopy and enzyme immunoassay for the detection of rotaviruses in calves, lambs, piglets and foals. Aust Vet J 65:133, 1988. PUBMED Abstract
  45. Morley PS, Bogdan JR, Townsend HG, et al: Evaluation of Directigen Flu A assay for detection of influenza antigen in nasal secretions of horses. Equine Vet J 27:131, 1995. PUBMED Abstract
  46. Laviada MD, Babin M, Dominguez J, et al: Detection of African horse sickness virus in infected spleens by a sandwich ELISA using two monoclonal antibodies specific for VP7. J Virol Methods 38:229, 1992. PUBMED Abstract
  47. Maes RK, Grooms DL, Wise AG, et al: Evaluation of a human group A rotavirus assay for the on-site detection of bovine rotavirus. J Clin Microbiol 41:290, 2003. PUBMED Abstract
  48. Adam EN, Morley PS, Chmielewski KE, et al: Detection of cold-adapted vaccine-strain influenza virus using two commercial assays. Equine Vet J 34:400, 2002. PUBMED Abstract
  49. Ellenberger C, Schuppel KF, Mohring M, et al: Cowpox virus infection associated with a streptococcal septicaemia in a foal. J Comp Pathol 132:101, 2005. PUBMED Abstract
  50. Jonsson L, Beck-Friis J, Renstrom LH, et al: Equine herpes virus 1 (EHV-1) in liver, spleen, and lung as demonstrated by immunohistology and electron microscopy. Acta Vet Scand 30:141, 1989. PUBMED Abstract
  51. Gentile M, Gelderblom HR: Rapid viral diagnosis: role of electron microscopy. New Microbiol 28:1, 2005. PUBMED Abstract
  52. Renshaw RW, Glaser AL, Van Campen H, et al: Identification and phylogenetic comparison of Salem virus, a novel paramyxovirus of horses. Virology 270:417, 2000. PUBMED Abstract
  53. Kleiboeker SB, Loiacono CM, Rottinghaus A, et al: Diagnosis of West Nile virus infection in horses. J Vet Diagn Invest 16:2, 2004. PUBMED Abstract
  54. Oaks JL, McGuire TC, Ulibarri C, et al: Equine infectious anemia virus is found in tissue macrophages during subclinical infection. J Virol 72:7263, 1998. PUBMED Abstract
  55. Passler S, Pfeffer M: Detection of antibodies to alphaviruses and discrimination between antibodies to eastern and western equine encephalitis viruses in rabbit sera using a recombinant antigen and virus-specific monoclonal antibodies. J Vet Med B Infect Dis Vet Public Health 50:265, 2003. PUBMED Abstract
  56. Sentsui H, Inoshima Y, Murakami K, et al: Cross reaction of recombinant equine infectious anemia virus antigen to heterologous strains and application for serological survey among horses in the field. Microbiol Immunol 45:45, 2001. PUBMED Abstract
  57. Porter MB, Long M, Gosche DG, et al: Immunoglobulin M-capture enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay testing of cerebrospinal fluid and serum from horses exposed to West Nile virus by vaccination or natural infection. J Vet Intern Med 18:866, 2004. PUBMED Abstract
  58. Sahu SP, Alstad AD, Pedersen DD, et al: Diagnosis of eastern equine encephalomyelitis virus infection in horses by immunoglobulin M and G capture enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay. J Vet Diagn Invest 6:34, 1994. PUBMED Abstract
  59. Calisher CH, Mahmud MI, el-Kafrawi AC, et al: Rapid and specific serodiagnosis of western equine encephalitis virus infection in horses. Am J Vet Res 47:1296, 1986. PUBMED Abstract
  60. Hartley CA, Wilks CR, Studdert MJ, et al: Comparison of antibody detection assays for the diagnosis of equine herpesvirus 1 and 4 infections in horses. Am J Vet Res 66:921, 2005. PUBMED Abstract
  61. Singh BK, Ahuja S, Gulati BR: Development of a neutralizing monoclonal antibody-based blocking ELISA for detection of equine herpesvirus 1 antibodies. Vet Res Commun 28:437, 2004. PUBMED Abstract
  62. Van Maanen C, de Boer-Luijtze E, Terpstra C: Development and validation of a monoclonal antibody blocking ELISA for the detection of antibodies against both equine herpesvirus type 1 (EHV1) and equine herpesvirus type 4 (EHV4). Vet Microbiol 71:37, 2000. PUBMED Abstract
  63. USDA-APHIS: http://www.aphis.usda.gov/vs/nahss/equine/eia/eia_info_sheet.pdf.
  64. OIE: Equine Influenza, 2.5.7: http://www.oie.int/fileadmin/Home/eng/Health_standards/tahm/2.05.07_EQ_INF.pdf.
  65. Coggins L: Carriers of equine infectious anemia virus. J Am Vet Med Assoc 184:279, 1984. PUBMED Abstract
  66. Glaser AL, de Vries AA, Rottier PJ, et al: Equine arteritis virus: a review of clinical features and management aspects. Vet Q 18:95, 1996. PUBMED Abstract
  67. Zhou EM, Riva J, Clavijo A: Development of an immunoglobulin M (IgM) capture enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay for detection of equine and swine IgM antibodies to vesicular stomatitis virus. Clin Diagn Lab Immunol 8:475, 2001. PUBMED Abstract
  68. Long M, Porter M, Hernandez J, et al: Preliminary data regarding the subclinical exposure rate of horses to West Nile virus during the 2001 Florida enzootic. In Proceedings of the 49th Annual Meeting of the American Association of Equine Practitioners, 2003, pp 397–398.
  69. Ostlund EN, Andresen JE, Andresen M: West Nile encephalitis. Vet Clin North Am Equine Pract 16:427, 2000. PUBMED Abstract
  70. Andrews FM, Geiser DR, Sommardahl CS, et al: Albumin quotient, IgG concentration, and IgG index determinations in cerebrospinal fluid of neonatal foals. Am J Vet Res 55:741, 1994. PUBMED Abstract
  71. Diagnostic testing. In Thrusfield M, editor: Veterinary epidemiology, ed 2, Oxford, 1997, Blackwell Science.
  72. Kong XG, Pang H, Sugiura T, et al: Evaluation of equine infectious anemia virus core proteins produced in a baculovirus expression system in agar gel immunodiffusion test and enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay. J Vet Med Sci 60:1361, 1998. PUBMED Abstract
  73. Soutullo A, Verwimp V, Riveros M, et al: Design and validation of an ELISA for equine infectious anemia (EIA) diagnosis using synthetic peptides. Vet Microbiol 79:111, 2001. PUBMED Abstract